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   Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour   
      
   From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   
   The statistical correlations of criminal behavior explore the associations of   
   specific non-criminal factors with specific crimes.   
      
   The field of criminology studies the dynamics of crime. Most of these studies   
   use correlational data; that is, they attempt to identify various factors are   
   associated with specific categories of criminal behavior. Such correlational   
   studies led to    
   hypotheses about the causes of these crimes.   
      
   The Handbook of Crime Correlates (2009) is a systematic review of 5200   
   empirical studies on crime that have been published worldwide. A crime   
   consistency score represents the strength of relationships. The scoring   
   depends on how consistently a    
   statistically significant relationship was identified across multiple studies.   
   The authors claim that the review summarizes most of what is currently known   
   about the variables associated with criminality.[1]   
      
   Contents   
      
    [hide]    
   1	Gender and biology   
   2	Race, ethnicity and immigration   
   3	Early life   
   4	Adult behavior   
   5	Religion   
   6	Psychological traits   
   7	Socioeconomic factors   
   8	Geographic factors   
   9	Parent/child relationships   
   10	Biosocial criminology   
   11	See also   
   12	References   
   13	Sources   
   Gender and biology   
      
      
   Crime occurs most frequently during the second and third decades of life.   
   Males commit more crime overall and more violent crime than females. They   
   commit more property crime except shoplifting, which is about equally   
   distributed between the genders.    
   Males appear to be more likely to reoffend. Measures related to arousal such   
   as heart rate and skin conductance are low among criminals. Mesomorphic or   
   muscular body type is positively correlated with criminality, in particular   
   with sexual crimes.   
   Testosterone levels positively correlate to criminal behavior.[1]   
      
   When controlling for age and sex, strong genetic correlates with criminality.   
   Low monoamine oxidase activity and low 5-HIAA levels tend to be found among   
   criminals.[1] Monoamine oxidase A (dubbed the "warrior gene" in the popular   
   press) is strongly tied    
   to an increased tendency towards violent crime. In addition, CDH13, a gene   
   previously tied to an increased risk of substance abuse, has been tied to   
   violent crime.[2] These tendencies are ostensibly related, as the majority of   
   all individuals who commit    
   severe violent crime in Finland do so under the influence of alcohol or drugs.   
   The presence of the genetic profile is not determinative, although it   
   increases the likelihood of delinquency in cases where other factors are   
   present. Ferguson stated, 'a    
   large percentage of our behaviour in terms of violence or aggression is   
   influenced by our biology - our genes - and our brain anatomy.' Schnupp   
   stated, 'To call these alleles "genes for violence" would therefore be a   
   massive exaggeration. In combination    
   with many other factors these genes may make it a little harder for you to   
   control violent urges, but they most emphatically do not predetermine you for   
   a life of crime.'   
   Race, ethnicity and immigration   
      
   Associated factors include race and crime and status as an immigrant.   
   Ethnically/racially diverse geographical areas have higher crime rates   
   compared to homogeneous areas. Most studies on immigrants found higher rates   
   of crime among these populations;    
   these rates vary according to the country of origin (immigrants from some   
   regions having lower crime rates than the indigenous population).[1]   
      
   Early life   
      
   Associated factors include maternal smoking during pregnancy, Low birth   
   weight, perinatal trauma/birth complications,[1][3] child maltreatment, low   
   parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord, alcoholism and drug   
   use in the family, low    
   parental supervision/monitoring, family size and birth order,[1] nocturnal   
   enuresis or bed wetting, bullying, school disciplinary problems, truancy, low   
   grade point average, and dropping out of high school[1] and childhood lead   
   exposure.[4]   
      
   Adult behavior   
      
   Associated factors include high alcohol use, alcohol abuse and alcoholism,   
   high illegal drug use and dependence, early age of first sexual intercourse   
   and the number of sexual partners, social isolation, criminal peer groups and   
   gang membership.[1]   
      
   Religion   
      
   A few studies have found a negative correlation between religiosity and   
   criminality. A 2001 meta-analysis found, "religious beliefs and behaviors   
   exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior".[5][6] An   
   individual with high    
   religious saliency (i.e. expressing the high importance of religion in their   
   life) is less likely to be associated with criminal activities; similarly, an   
   individual who regularly attends religious services or is highly involved in   
   them tends to be less    
   involved in criminality, with the exception of property damage.[7] Other   
   meta-analysis research suggests that those who subscribe to more orthodox   
   religious beliefs are less likely to engage in criminal behavior than those   
   who do not.[8]   
      
   A 1997 study found no statistically significant negative correlations between   
   religiosity and crime, or religiosity and drug use, and the only relationship   
   between religiosity and alcohol was statistically significant.[9] A more   
   recent review concludes    
   that there are insufficient data to indicate any correlation between   
   religiosity and crime.[10]   
      
   Psychological traits   
      
   Associated factors include childhood conduct disorder, adult antisocial   
   personality disorder (also associated with each other),[1][11] attention   
   deficit hyperactivity disorder, minor depression, clinical depression,   
   depression in the family, suicidal    
   tendencies and[1] schizophrenia.[1][12]   
      
   The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and   
   Unknowns stated that the correlation between IQ and crime was -0.2. In his   
   book The g Factor (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that IQ was   
   generally negatively    
   associated with crime among people of all races, peaking between 80 and 90.   
   Learning disability is a substantial discrepancy between IQ and academic   
   performance and is associated with crime. Slow reading development may be   
   particularly relevant.[1]   
      
   Several personality traits are associated with criminality: impulsivity,   
   psychoticism, sensation-seeking, (low) self control, childhood aggression, low   
   empathy and low altruism.[1]   
      
   Socioeconomic factors   
      
      
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